EVS.Semester 4. Unit 1: Types of Environmental Pollution and Unit 2: Energy Resources and Global Environmental Issues

*The topics (notes) is prepared using specific prompts on Gemini*

 UNIT: 1 Types of Environmental Pollution

❖     1.1.1 Water pollution:

Introduction Water Quality Standards, Sources of Water Pollution: Industrial Agricultural, Municipal Classification of water pollutants, Effects of water pollutants, Eutrophication.

❖     1.1.2 Marine Pollution

❖     1.1.3 Air pollution:

Composition of air, Structure of atmosphere, Ambient Air Quality Standards. Classification of air pollutants, Sources of common air pollutants like PM, SO₂, NOx, Natural & Anthropogenic Sources, Effects of common air pollutants.

❖     1.1.4 Land Pollution: Land uses, Land degradation; causes, effects and control, soil erosion.

❖     1.1.5 Noise Pollution: Introduction, Sound and Noise, Noise measurements, Causes and Effects

❖     1.1.6 Thermal Pollution: Causes and effects

        Role of individual in the prevention of pollution

        Revision

UNIT:-2 Energy Resources and Global Environmental Issues

❖     2.1.1 Energy resources:

Global and Indian energy demand scenario, future Projections, Conventional and Non-conventional sources of energy, Advantages and Limitations, Utilization, Exploitation and related Environmental problems, Environmental implications of Non-conventional Energy Sources.

❖     2.1.2 Global Environmental Issues:

Climate change, Global Warming and Green House Effect, Acid Rain, Depletion of Ozone layer.

Notes

Unit 1: Types of Environmental Pollution

Environmental pollution refers to the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse changes. These contaminants can be chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollution is a major global issue, with significant impacts on ecosystems, human health, and the economy. For Indian students, understanding these concepts is crucial given the country's diverse environmental challenges.

1.1.1 Water Pollution

Introduction: Water is essential for all life forms. Water pollution occurs when harmful substances contaminate bodies of water, degrading water quality and making it toxic to humans and the environment.

Water Quality Standards: These are benchmarks set to ensure water is safe for various uses (drinking, irrigation, recreation). In India, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) define these standards. Key parameters include pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the presence of pathogens and heavy metals.

 

Sources of Water Pollution:

• Industrial Pollution: Industries discharge untreated or partially treated wastewater containing heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium), toxic chemicals (cyanide, phenols), organic matter, and thermal pollutants. Examples include effluents from textile, pharmaceutical, chemical, and pulp and paper industries.
• Agricultural Pollution: Runoff from agricultural fields carries pesticides, herbicides, and excess fertilizers (nitrates, phosphates) into water bodies. Animal waste from livestock farming also contributes significantly to nutrient and pathogen pollution.
• Municipal Pollution: This includes sewage and wastewater from households and commercial establishments. Untreated municipal sewage is a major source of organic matter, pathogens (bacteria, viruses), and nutrients. 

Classification of Water Pollutants:

• Pathogens-Infectious Agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasitic worms from human and animal waste.
• Oxygen-Demanding Wastes: Biodegradable organic matter that consumes dissolved oxygen as it decomposes (e.g., sewage, animal manure).
• Inorganic Plant Nutrients: Nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers and detergents, leading to eutrophication.
• Organic Chemicals: Pesticides, plastics, petroleum products, pharmaceuticals.
• Inorganic Chemicals: Acids, salts, heavy metals (lead, mercury, arsenic).
• Sediments: Soil, silt, and other insoluble matter from land erosion.
• Radioactive Materials: From nuclear power plants or medical facilities.
• Thermal Pollution: Hot water discharged from power plants and industries.

Effects of Water Pollutants:

• Human Health: Waterborne diseases (cholera, typhoid, dysentery), cancer, neurological disorders from heavy metals.
• Aquatic Life: Reduced dissolved oxygen due to organic pollution leads to fish kills. Toxic chemicals can accumulate in the food chain (biomagnification).
• Ecosystems: Loss of biodiversity, disruption of aquatic food webs.
• Economic Impact: Cost of water treatment, loss of fisheries, impact on tourism.

Eutrophication: This is the excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.

Process:

1. Excess nutrients (nitrates, phosphates) enter water bodies.
2. Rapid growth of algae and aquatic plants (algal bloom).
3. Algae block sunlight, killing submerged plants.
4. When algae die, decomposers consume large amounts of dissolved oxygen.
5. Lack of oxygen leads to the death of fish and other aquatic organisms.
6. The water body becomes a "dead zone."

Here's a diagram illustrating the process of eutrophication:

1.1.2 Marine Pollution

Marine pollution is the introduction of harmful substances or energy into the oceans and seas, resulting in adverse effects on marine ecosystems and living organisms. It is a critical environmental concern for India, given its long coastline and reliance on coastal ecosystems.

• Sources of Marine Pollution:

1.       Land-Based Sources (80% of marine pollution): This is the largest source. It includes sewage and wastewater (untreated municipal discharge), agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), industrial waste (heavy metals, toxic chemicals), and plastic waste (including microbeads and microplastics).

2.      Ship-Based Sources: Oil spills (accidental or illegal discharge), routine discharge of ballast water (spreading invasive species), and garbage dumping.

3.      Offshore Activities: Oil and gas drilling, and deep-sea mining.

4.      Atmospheric Deposition: Pollutants like nitrogen and sulphur oxides from air pollution settle into the ocean surface.

• Effects of Marine Pollution:

1.       Damage to Marine Life: Ingestion of plastics leads to starvation; entanglement in debris causes injury/death; toxins (e.g., heavy metals) bioaccumulate and biomagnifies up the food chain.

2.      Ecosystem Disruption: Eutrophication in coastal waters leads to oxygen-depleted Dead Zones (hypoxia). Oil spills destroy coastal habitats like coral reefs and mangroves.

3.      Human Health Risks: Consumption of seafood contaminated with heavy metals (like mercury) can cause neurological and developmental damage.

4.      Economic Impact: Loss of tourism revenue, damage to the fishing industry.

1.1.3 Air Pollution

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to human health and the environment.

Composition of Air and Structure of Atmosphere

• Composition of Air (Near Surface, Dry):

• Nitrogen (N₂): 78%
• Oxygen (O₂): 21%
• Argon (Ar): 0.9%

o   Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): 0.04%

o   Trace gases (Neon, Helium, Methane, etc.)

• Structure of the Atmosphere (Layers from Earth's surface upwards):
• Troposphere:  0-12  km. Where all weather occurs. Contains 80% of the atmosphere's mass. Pollutants are primarily found here.
• Stratosphere: 12-50 km. Contains the Ozone Layer (O3), which absorbs harmful UV radiation.
• Mesosphere:  50-85  km. Temperature decreases with height.
• Thermosphere/Ionosphere:  85-600  km.

Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQS)

In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), sets the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). The NAAQS specifies the maximum permissible concentration of pollutants in the ambient (outdoor) air.

Pollutant	Time Weighted Average	Industrial, Residential, Rural Areas (μg/m3)
PM10	Annual	60
PM2.5	Annual	40
SO2 (Sulphur Dioxide)	Annual	50
NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide)	Annual	40
CO (Carbon Monoxide)	8 hours	2000 (mg/ m3)

The NAAQS also includes 24-hourly averages for most, and standards for O3, NH3, Pb, Benzene, and other toxins.

Classification of Air Pollutants

1. Primary Pollutants: Emitted directly from a source. Examples:    PM (Particulate Matter), SO2, NOx, CO, Hydrocarbons.
2. Secondary Pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving primary pollutants and natural atmospheric components.

Example: Ozone (O3) in the troposphere (photochemical smog) and Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4).

Sources and Effects of Common Air Pollutants

Pollutant	Natural Sources	Anthropogenic (Man-Made) Sources	Effects
PM (Particulate Matter) (PM10, PM2.5)	Dust storms, forest fires, sea salt.	Vehicular exhaust, industrial emissions (power plants, factories), construction, crop residue burning (e.g., in North India).	Respiratory issues (asthma, bronchitis), cardiovascular disease, reduced visibility (haze), PM 2.5 can enter bloodstream.
SO2 (Sulphur Dioxide)	Volcanic eruptions, decomposition of organic matter.	Combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels (coal, oil) in power plants and industries.	Respiratory irritation, contributes to Acid Rain (as H2 SO4), damages plant life and buildings.
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides)	Lightning, microbial action in soil.	High-temperature combustion in vehicle engines and thermal power plants.	Respiratory problems, contributes to Acid Rain (as    HNO3 ), key precursor for photochemical smog (ground-level    O3 ).

 

1.1.4 Land Pollution

Land pollution is the degradation or destruction of Earth's land surfaces and soil, directly or indirectly, as a result of human activities.

1. Land Uses: Categorised broadly as: Agricultural (cultivation, livestock), Forest/Wilderness (timber, conservation), Urban/Industrial (residential, commercial, manufacturing), and Recreational (parks, golf courses).
2. Land Degradation: A process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. This includes soil erosion, soil fertility decline, salinization, and chemical contamination.
3. Causes of Land Degradation/Pollution:
• Improper Waste Disposal: Dumping of solid municipal waste (landfills), industrial hazardous and non-hazardous waste.
• Agricultural Practices: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which contaminate the soil; over-irrigation leading to soil salinization (salt build-up).
• Mining: Extraction processes generate large amounts of overburden (waste rock) and tailings that contaminate the soil with heavy metals.
• Deforestation and Overgrazing: Removal of vegetation cover exposes the soil to erosive forces.
4. Soil Erosion: The displacement of the uppermost layer of soil, primarily caused by wind and water.
• Types: Sheet erosion (uniform removal of topsoil by runoff), Rill erosion (small, concentrated channels forming), Gully erosion (large, deep channels forming).
• Causes: Lack of vegetation, steep slopes, high-intensity rainfall, poor farming practices (e.g., up-and-down ploughing).
5. Effects of Land Pollution/Degradation:
• Loss of Soil Fertility: Essential nutrients and beneficial microbes are destroyed, reducing agricultural yield.
• Water Pollution: Contaminants leach into groundwater or are washed into surface water bodies as runoff.
• Desertification: Severe land degradation in arid/semi-arid areas results in the expansion of desert-like conditions.
• Health Hazards: Toxic chemicals enter the food chain via contaminated crops.
6. Control of Land Degradation/Erosion:
• Sustainable Agriculture: Organic farming, crop rotation, reduced tillage, and balanced fertilizer use.
• Afforestation/Reforestation: Planting trees and vegetation cover.
• Soil Conservation Techniques: Contour ploughing (ploughing parallel to the contours of a slope), Terracing (cutting steps into hillsides), and building check dams.
• Proper Waste Management: Scientific landfill management, recycling, and composting. 

1.1.5 Noise Pollution

Introduction, Sound and Noise:

• Sound: A form of energy that travels through a medium (like air) as waves, detected by the human ear. Its properties are measured by Frequency (Hertz, Hz) and Intensity (Decibel, dB).
• Noise: Unwanted, unpleasant, or loud sound that can interfere with human activities and health.

Noise Measurements:

• Noise intensity is measured on the Decibel (dB) scale, which is logarithmic. A 10    dB increase is perceived as roughly twice as loud.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) states that sound levels above 65 dB   are considered noise pollution, and above 120 dB and cause pain and immediate hearing damage.
• In India, the CPCB prescribes ambient noise standards for different areas (e.g., Day-time:  75 dB in Industrial, 55 dB in Residential; Night-time:  70 dB in Industrial, 45 dB in Residential).

Causes and Effects:

Causes	Effects
Industrial Noise: Heavy machinery, generators, mills.	Physiological: Hearing loss, Tinnitus (ringing in the ears), increased heart rate, high blood pressure.
Transportation: Vehicle honking, engines, air traffic, rail traffic.	Psychological: Stress, fatigue, anxiety, irritability, reduced efficiency, poor concentration (especially in students).
Construction Activities: Drilling, blasting, heavy equipment.	Sleep Interference: Disruption of sleep cycles (above 45 dB ).
Social Events: Loudspeakers, firecrackers, religious processions.	Ecological: Interference with animal communication (e.g., dolphins/whales), disruption of breeding patterns in birds.

 

1.1.6 Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes the ambient water temperature.

• Causes:
• Power Plants and Industries (Major Source): Use large volumes of water for cooling machinery (condensers, reactors). The warm water discharge is then released back into the water body at a significantly higher temperature.
• Deforestation/Removal of Riparian Vegetation: Cutting down trees along riverbanks removes shade, exposing the water body to direct sunlight and increasing its temperature.
• Urban Runoff: Stormwater runoff from heat-absorbing paved surfaces (roads, parking lots) in urban areas is often significantly warmer and enters water bodies.
• Effects:
• Decreased Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Solubility of oxygen in water decreases as temperature increases. Lower DO can suffocate fish and other aquatic organisms (leading to fish kills).
• Increased Toxicity: The toxicity of certain chemicals (e.g., cyanides, heavy metals) increases at higher water temperatures.
• Altered Metabolism and Reproduction: Warmer water increases the metabolic rate of aquatic organisms, requiring more food. It also disrupts breeding, spawning, and migration cycles, leading to changes in species composition.
• Promotion of Algal Blooms: Warmer temperatures favor the growth of certain algae (often nuisance species), which contributes to eutrophication and further oxygen depletion.

Role of Individual in the Prevention of Pollution

Individual action is critical, as collective small changes lead to massive environmental benefits. Indian students, as future leaders, must champion these roles:

Area of Pollution	Individual Role in Prevention
Water	* Conserve Water: Fix leaks, use water-efficient appliances. * Responsible Disposal: Never pour oils, chemicals, paints, or medicines down the drain or toilet. * Reduce Detergent Use: Use biodegradable and phosphate-free detergents.
Marine	* Reduce Plastic Use: Say NO to single-use plastics (bags, straws, PET bottles). * Proper Waste Segregation/Recycling: Ensure plastic waste is recycled and does not reach water bodies. * Support Cleanup Drives: Participate in river/beach cleanup programs.
Air	* Promote Public/Active Transport: Use public transport, cycle, or walk for short distances. * Vehicle Maintenance: Ensure your vehicle has a valid Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificate. * Energy Conservation: Switch off lights/fans/ACs when not needed; use energy-efficient appliances.
Land	* Segregation & Composting: Segregate waste at home (wet, dry, hazardous). Compost kitchen/garden waste. * Reduce/Refuse: Avoid buying products with excessive packaging. * Responsible Product Use: Use natural alternatives to chemical pesticides/fertilizers in home gardening.
Noise	* Minimize Vehicle Honking: Use the horn only when absolutely necessary. * Control Volume: Keep music, TV, and appliance volumes low, especially at night. * Time Construction: Avoid noisy construction/repair work during night hours or exam times.

Preventive and Control Measures

1. Water and Marine Pollution Control

Measure Type	Specific Actions
Source Reduction	Minimise Fertilizer Use: Promote organic farming and precise nutrient application to reduce agricultural runoff. Industrial Pre-treatment: Enforce mandatory pre-treatment of industrial effluents before discharge into municipal lines or natural water bodies.
Treatment	Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs): Establish and efficiently operate Primary (physical), Secondary (biological), and Tertiary (advanced chemical/biological) treatments for municipal sewage. STP Sludge Management: Ensure safe disposal or beneficial reuse (e.g., biogas production).
Legal/Regulatory	Strict Effluent Standards: Enforce the CPCB's "Minimum National Standards" (MINAS) for industrial discharge. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ): Strictly implement CRZ norms to prevent pollutant discharge and unchecked construction near coastal areas.
Marine Specific	Oil Spill Response: Maintain trained teams and equipment (booms, skimmers, dispersants) for quick oil spill containment. Ballast Water Management: Implement IMO guidelines to treat ballast water to prevent the spread of invasive species.

2. Air Pollution Control

Measure Type	Specific Actions
Control Devices	Particulate Matter (PM): Use Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP), Baghouse Filters, and Cyclonic Separators in industries to capture dust and soot. Sulphur Dioxide (SO): Implement Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) technology, which sprays alkaline solution (like limestone slurry) to absorb SO.
Combustion Modification	Vehicular Control: Mandate high-quality fuel (BS-VI in India), and require Catalytic Converters in vehicles to convert CO, NO, and unburnt hydrocarbons into less harmful substances. Low-NO Burners: Design industrial furnaces to burn fuel at lower temperatures to reduce NO formation.
Urban Planning	Green Corridors: Develop green belts around industrial areas and along major roads to act as pollution sinks. Promote Public Transit: Develop efficient, electrified, and well-connected public transportation networks to reduce private vehicle reliance.

3. Land Pollution Control

Measure Type	Specific Actions
Waste Management	3R Principle: Promote Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Scientific Landfilling: Replace open dumps with Sanitary Landfills that have impervious liners, leachate collection, and methane gas recovery systems. Hazardous Waste Treatment: Use Incineration or Solidification/Stabilization for industrial hazardous waste.
Soil Conservation	Afforestation/Agroforestry: Plant trees to bind soil and act as windbreaks. Erosion Control: Implement measures like contour bunding, terracing, and strip cropping on agricultural slopes to slow water runoff and prevent soil loss.
Sustainable Agriculture	Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Use biological control and pest-resistant crops to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides. Biofertilizers: Use biological alternatives (e.g., Azotobacter, Rhizobium) to minimize chemical fertilizer application.

4. Noise and Thermal Pollution Control

Measure Type	Specific Actions
Noise Control	Source Isolation: Use acoustic enclosures or noise barriers (e.g., along highways and railway lines) to absorb/block sound. Industrial Damping: Use rubber mountings, mufflers, and sound-absorbing materials in factory walls and floors to minimize machinery vibration and noise. Regulation: Strictly enforce noise restrictions during night hours and in sensitive areas (hospitals, schools).
Thermal Control (Water)	Cooling Ponds/Towers: Industries should use cooling towers or build cooling ponds to dissipate heat from discharged water before releasing it into natural water bodies. Co-generation: Implement systems that use waste heat from power generation for other productive purposes (e.g., district heating), reducing the amount of heat discharged.
Thermal Control (Urban)	Green Roofs and Urban Forests: Increase green cover to reduce the urban heat island effect, thereby lowering the temperature of urban runoff.

Air Pollution Control Technologies

1. Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

The Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) is a highly efficient device used to remove Particulate Matter (PM), such as dust and soot, from industrial exhaust gases (flue gas) before they're released into the atmosphere.

• Principle: It works by using an electrostatic force to separate dust particles from the gas stream.
• Mechanism:
1. The dirty gas passes through a chamber containing negatively charged discharge electrodes (wires) and positively charged collecting electrodes (plates).
2. As particles pass near the discharge electrodes, they gain a negative charge.
3. The charged particles are then strongly attracted to the positively charged collecting plates.
4. The collected layer of dust is periodically removed from the plates by mechanical rapping and falls into a hopper for disposal.
• Application: Widely used in thermal power plants (coal-fired), cement, and steel industries.

2. Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)

Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) is a technology used to remove Sulphur Dioxide (SO) from the exhaust flue gases of power stations and industrial facilities. SO is a primary pollutant that causes acid rain and respiratory issues.

• Principle: It involves chemically reacting SO (an acidic gas) with an alkaline substance to create a harmless salt or byproduct.
• Mechanism (Wet Scrubbing - Most Common Type):
1. Flue gas enters a scrubber (an absorption tower).
2. An alkaline absorbent slurry, typically made of limestone (CaCO3) or lime (Ca(OH)_2) mixed with water, is sprayed into the gas stream.
3. The SO in the gas reacts with the alkaline slurry, forming calcium sulphite (CaSO3), which is then usually oxidized to produce gypsum (CaSO4 cdot 2H2O).
4. The cleaned gas exits the scrubber, and the gypsum (a marketable product used in cement and wallboard) is collected.
• Application: Crucial for power plants that burn high-sulphur coal.

A crucial part of your environmental science study is understanding the government initiatives that translate pollution prevention principles into action. In India, various central government initiatives and laws are in place to address the types of pollution you've studied.

In Key Government Initiatives for Pollution Control

1. Water Pollution Control Initiatives

The legislative framework is primarily the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Major operational and programmatic initiatives include:

• Namami Gange Programme (National Mission for Clean Ganga - NMCG): A flagship program launched in 2014 with the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution and the conservation and rejuvenation of the River Ganga.
• Focus Areas: Creating Sewage Treatment Capacity (STPs) to stop untreated sewage flow, industrial effluent monitoring, river surface cleaning, biodiversity conservation, and afforestation.
• Vision: Ensuring "Aviral Dhara" (Continuous Flow) and "Nirmal Dhara" (Unpolluted Flow).
• National River Conservation Programme (NRCP): A central scheme for pollution abatement works in various rivers (excluding the Ganga, which is covered by NMCG) across the country. It focuses on the interception, diversion, and treatment of sewage.
• National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA): Merged the National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) and the National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP). It aims for the conservation and management of lakes and wetlands in India.
• Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): Primarily focused on providing safe and adequate drinking water through tap connections to all rural households by 2024, which includes addressing water quality issues in contaminated areas.

2. Air Pollution Control Initiatives

The legislative framework is the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. Major initiatives include:

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, it is a long-term, time-bound national strategy to tackle the air pollution problem across the country.
• Goal: Achieve 20% to 30% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations by 2024 (from 2017 levels) in over 131 "non-attainment" cities.
• Components: Augmenting the air quality monitoring network, implementing city-specific clean air action plans, and increasing public awareness.
• Bharat Stage Emission Standards (BS Norms): These are emission standards instituted by the government to regulate the output of air pollutants from motor vehicles. India leapfrogged from BS-IV to BS-VI norms in 2020 to introduce cleaner fuel and vehicle technologies, significantly lowering Sulphur (SO) and Nitrogen Oxide (NO) content.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): A set of emergency measures (e.g., stopping construction, odd-even scheme, banning diesel generators) implemented sequentially based on the severity of the Air Quality Index (AQI) in the Delhi-NCR region.
• National Air Quality Index (AQI): Launched in 2015, it provides air quality information for eight key pollutants in a simple, easy-to-understand format for the common public.

3. Land Pollution and Waste Management Initiatives

Land pollution is primarily addressed through comprehensive Waste Management Rules under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

• Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) - Urban and Grameen: India's largest cleanliness drive. SBM 2.0 (Urban) focuses heavily on achieving "Garbage Free Cities" by:
• Source segregation of waste.
• Scientific processing of all municipal solid waste.
• Bio-remediation of legacy waste (old waste piles) at dump sites.
• Key Waste Management Rules:
• Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: Mandate waste segregation at the source (into wet, dry, and domestic hazardous waste) and promote scientific processing.
• Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (amended 2022): Include a ban on select Single-Use Plastics (SUPs) and mandate Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), making producers responsible for the collection and recycling of post-consumer plastic waste.
• E-Waste, Bio-Medical, and Construction & Demolition Waste Rules: Specific rules tailored for the safe handling and disposal of these specialized wastes.
• GOBAR-Dhan Scheme: Focuses on converting cattle dung and solid farm waste into compressed biogas (CBG) and bio-fertilizers, addressing rural land pollution while creating revenue.

4. Regulatory Framework

The following institutions and acts provide the foundational legal and monitoring support:

• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
• Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
• Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: The umbrella legislation giving the Central Government power to protect and improve environmental quality.
• Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs): Statutory bodies responsible for monitoring pollution, enforcing standards, and implementing these acts.
• National Green Tribunal (NGT): A specialized judicial body established in 2010 to handle environmental disputes quickly, often issuing directives on non-compliant industries and pollution control measures.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) mechanism, is vital for controlling land pollution from plastic and e-waste?

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a transformative environmental policy approach that makes the producer (manufacturer, importer, or brand owner) financially and/or physically responsible for the treatment or disposal of post-consumer products.

In simple terms, it shifts the burden of waste management from the municipal government and taxpayers to the entities that introduce the product into the market. This mechanism directly tackles land pollution by mandating formal, environmentally sound waste handling. 

Key Principles and Objectives

• Polluter Pays Principle: The fundamental basis of EPR. The cost of managing end-of-life products is internalized into the product price, rather than being externalized onto society (local governments/landfills).
• Life Cycle Thinking: It incentivizes producers to adopt eco-design, meaning they are encouraged to design products that are durable, contain fewer hazardous substances, and are easier to recycle or reuse.
• Circular Economy: EPR promotes the recovery of valuable materials, leading India toward a Circular Economy—where waste is minimized, and resources are kept in use for as long as possible.

EPR Mechanism in India (Plastic and E-Waste)

The EPR framework in India is regulated by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under various specific Waste Management Rules (e.g., Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016; E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022).

Feature	E-Waste (Electronic and Electrical Equipment)	Plastic Packaging Waste
Obligated Entity	Producers, Importers, and Brand Owners (PIBOs) of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE).	Producers, Importers, and Brand Owners (PIBOs) of plastic packaging.
Mandate	Producers must meet mandatory annual collection and recycling targets based on the quantity of EEE sold in previous years.	Producers must meet mandatory annual recycling/processing targets based on the quantity of plastic packaging introduced.
Method of Compliance	Physical Channelization: Setting up collection points, take-back systems, or working with Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs).	EPR Certificates: Producers must acquire EPR Certificates (either by self-recycling or purchasing from authorized recyclers/processors) to demonstrate compliance with their recycling target.
Digital Backbone	Centralized CPCB Online Portal for registration, target filing, and certificate tracking.	Centralized CPCB Online Portal for registration, target filing, and certificate tracking.
Incentive	Encourages the safe and formal recovery of valuable materials like gold, copper, and rare earth elements, and prevents hazardous materials (e.g., lead, mercury) from entering landfills.	Mandates the use of a minimum percentage of recycled plastic content in new products over time.

Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO)

A PRO is an agency or third party hired by producers to fulfil their EPR obligations. PROs manage the logistical tasks like:

• Setting up collection infrastructure.
• Creating awareness among consumers.
• Channelizing the collected waste to authorized recyclers/dismantlers.

EPR Certificates (The Market Mechanism)

This is a key innovation for transparent compliance:

1. An authorized recycler/processor issues an EPR Certificate for the specific quantity of waste (e.g., 1 tonne of plastic or e-waste) they have recycled/processed.
2. A Producer who has a recycling obligation can purchase these certificates via the CPCB portal.
3. The purchase of the certificate verifies that the producer has financed the recycling of an equivalent amount of waste, thereby meeting their legal target. This creates a market for recycled materials and helps fund the formal recycling sector.

Role of the Individual in the Prevention of Pollution

The role of an individual is to practice environmental stewardship by consciously altering daily consumption patterns and advocating for sustainable practices.

1. Water Conservation and Purity

• Fix Leaks Promptly: A single leaking tap can waste hundreds of liters of water per month. Individuals must ensure household plumbing is intact.
• Use Water-Efficient Appliances: Install low-flow showerheads and dual-flush toilets. For large appliances, choose models with high Water Efficiency Ratings.
• Responsible Disposal of Household Waste: Never pour chemicals (paints, oils, unused medicines, cleaning agents) down the sink or toilet. These contaminate municipal sewage and hinder the efficiency of Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs).
• Reduce Chemical Use: Use eco-friendly, phosphate-free, and biodegradable detergents and cleaning products to prevent nutrient-loading in local water bodies.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Implement simple rainwater harvesting structures, even at a household level, to recharge groundwater and reduce dependence on municipal supply.

2. Air Quality Improvement and Energy Saving

• Promote Sustainable Transport: Prioritize walking, cycling, and using public transport over private vehicles, especially for short distances. Carpooling should be the default option for longer commutes.
• Vehicle Maintenance: Ensure your vehicle has a valid Pollution Under Control (PUC) Certificate and is regularly serviced to maximize fuel efficiency and minimize pollutant emissions.
• Energy Conservation at Home: Adopt the "switch off" habit. Switch off lights, fans, and Air Conditioners when leaving a room. Utilize natural light during the day.
• Sustainable Cooking: Where possible, switch from biomass fuels (wood, cow dung cakes) to cleaner alternatives like LPG or induction cooking to reduce indoor air pollution, which disproportionately affects women and children.
• Avoid Burning Waste: Strictly refrain from burning garbage, leaves, or plastic, as this releases hazardous PM, CO, and Dioxins directly into the air.

3. Waste Management and Land Protection

• Practice the 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle): This is the foundation of waste prevention.
• Reduce: Buy only what is necessary; choose products with minimal or no packaging.
• Reuse: Upcycle old items; carry reusable bags, bottles, and coffee cups.
• Recycle: Properly segregate waste at the source into dry (recyclable), wet (compostable), and domestic hazardous categories before handing it over to the municipal collector.
• Composting: Convert kitchen vegetable/fruit scraps and garden waste (wet waste) into nutrient-rich compost, thereby reducing the burden on landfills and creating valuable soil amendment.
• Avoid Single-Use Plastics (SUPs): Actively refuse items like plastic straws, carry bags, thermocol items, and non-recyclable cutlery, supporting the government's SUP ban.
• E-Waste Responsibility: Ensure old electronics and batteries are not thrown in the regular garbage bin but are handed over to authorized recyclers or municipal collection centres for safe processing under EPR schemes.

4. Noise and Thermal Awareness

• Mindful Noise Generation: Minimize the use of horns while driving, especially in silence zones (near hospitals and schools). Keep music and television volumes low.
• Time Nuisance Activities: Schedule noisy household repairs or celebrations during daytime hours to respect the community and local noise pollution norms.
• Plant Trees: Participate in local plantation drives. A single tree provides shade (reducing local thermal load) and absorbs sound, acting as a natural pollution barrier.

By adopting the principles of sustainable living and responsible consumption, an individual transforms from a consumer to an active participant in environmental protection.

Revision sheet covering the main acts, standards, and key terms:

Unit 1: Environmental Pollution

I. Foundational Concepts & Legislation

Concept	Definition/Explanation	Key Indian Legislation/Body
Pollution	Introduction of contaminants (substance or energy) into the environment causing adverse change.	Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (Umbrella Act)
Ambient Standard	Maximum permissible concentration of a pollutant in the surrounding air or water.	CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) sets these.
Effluent Standard	Maximum permissible discharge concentration from a specific source (e.g., a factory).	MINAS (Minimum National Standards) set by CPCB.
EPR	Extended Producer Responsibility: Policy making the producer responsible for the post-consumer life cycle of their product (e.g., plastic, e-waste).	Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (Amended)
NGT	National Green Tribunal: Specialized judicial body for effective and speedy disposal of cases relating to environmental protection.	Established in 2010.

II. Water & Marine Pollution

Term/Parameter	Description/Significance	Control Measures
Water Quality	Assessed by parameters like pH, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), BOD, COD.	Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
BOD	Biochemical Oxygen Demand: Amount of O consumed by microbes to break down organic matter. High BOD means high organic pollution.	Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs): Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Treatment.
Eutrophication	Nutrient over-enrichment (Nitrates, Phosphates) leading to algal blooms, high decomposition, and subsequent hypoxia (low DO or "dead zones").	Control agricultural runoff; STP Tertiary Treatment to remove nutrients.
Marine Pollution	Mainly caused by land-based sources (untreated sewage, plastic) and oil spills from ships/offshore drilling.	Implementation of CRZ (Coastal Regulation Zone) norms.

III. Air Pollution

Pollutant/Concept	Source/Type	Health/Environmental Effect	Control Technology
Primary Pollutant	Emitted directly (e.g., SO, PM, CO).
Secondary Pollutant	Formed in the atmosphere (e.g., Tropospheric O3 in photochemical smog, H2SO4 in acid rain).
PM2.5/PM10	Vehicular exhaust, construction dust, burning.	Enters lungs/bloodstream; causes respiratory/cardiac disease.	ESP (Electrostatic Precipitator), Baghouse filters.
SO	Burning of high-sulphur coal/fuel oil (power plants).	Respiratory irritation; precursor to Acid Rain.	FGD (Flue Gas Desulphurisation) using limestone slurry.
NO	High-temperature combustion (vehicle engines, power plants).	Precursor to Photochemical Smog and Acid Rain.	Catalytic Converters in vehicles; low- NO burners.
Key Initiative	National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Aims for a 20-30% reduction in PM concentration by 2024 in non-attainment cities.	Bharat Stage (BS-VI) Emission Norms.

IV. Land, Noise, and Thermal Pollution

Pollution Type	Key Term/Cause	Effect	Prevention/Control
Land	Salinization (salt build-up from over-irrigation); Soil Erosion (sheet, rill, gully); Unscientific landfills.	Loss of soil fertility; chemical leaching into groundwater.	Contour Bonding for erosion control; Scientific Sanitary Landfills; Waste Segregation.
Noise	Measured in Decibels (dB) (logarithmic scale). Major sources: Transport, industry.	Hearing loss, high blood pressure, sleep interference (especially above 45 dB at night).	Acoustic Enclosures/Barriers (Noise walls); Strict enforcement of Silence Zones (hospitals/schools).
Thermal	Discharge of hot water, primarily from power plant cooling systems.	Decreased Dissolved Oxygen (DO) solubility in water; disruption of aquatic life metabolism.	Cooling Towers/Ponds to dissipate heat before discharge.

V. Individual Responsibility

Area	High-Impact Individual Action
Consumption	Adherence to the 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle); Refusal of Single-Use Plastics (SUPs).
Mobility	Prioritizing public transport, cycling, or walking; ensuring vehicle PUC certification.
Home	Source segregation of waste; Composting wet waste; Conserving energy and water.
Community	Never dumping chemicals or toxic substances into drains; participating in local clean up/afforestation drives.

Define Eutrophication and detail its process. Additionally, classify air pollutants based on their formation and briefly explain the working principle of the Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) as a control measure.

Part 1: Eutrophication (Water Pollution)

Definition of Eutrophication:

Eutrophication (meaning "well-nourished" or "excessively fed") is the natural or anthropogenic process by which a body of water (like a lake or pond) acquires a high concentration of nutrients, particularly Nitrates and Phosphates. This nutrient enrichment triggers excessive growth of primary producers, such as algae and aquatic plants, leading to a degradation of water quality and ecosystem health.

Process Detail:

The process is a cascading ecological imbalance, often described in these steps:

1. Nutrient Input: Excess nutrients, primarily from agricultural runoff (fertilizers) and untreated sewage/industrial effluents, enter the water body.
2. Algal Bloom: The sudden availability of limiting nutrients causes a rapid, dense proliferation of phytoplankton (algae) near the surface, forming an "algal bloom."
3. Light Blockage and Death: The dense algal layer blocks sunlight from penetrating deeper layers, killing submerged aquatic vegetation (like seagrass).
4. Oxygen Depletion (Hypoxia): When the algal bloom and other plants die, they settle at the bottom. Aerobic decomposers (bacteria) consume this large mass of dead organic matter, rapidly using up the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in the bottom water.
5. Creation of Dead Zones: The resulting severe lack of oxygen (hypoxia or anoxia) leads to the death of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic life, creating a "dead zone" where life cannot be sustained.
6. Ecosystem Shift: The water body shifts from a clear, oxygen-rich state to a murky, oxygen-poor environment dominated by nutrient-tolerant species.

Part 2: Classification and Control of Air Pollution

Classification of Air Pollutant

Air pollutants are classified based on the mechanism of their release or formation:

1. Primary Pollutants: These are contaminants that are emitted directly from an identifiable source.
• Examples: Particulate Matter (PM), Sulphur Dioxide (SO), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and most Hydrocarbons.
2. Secondary Pollutants: These are contaminants that are formed in the atmosphere when primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions with other atmospheric components (like sunlight, water vapor, or oxygen).
• Examples: Ground-level Ozone (O3) (formed from NOand Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight), Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) (a component of acid rain). 

Working Principle of Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

The ESP is an air pollution control device used primarily to remove Particulate Matter (PM) from the flue gas emitted by industries (like power plants and cement factories) with very high efficiency (up to 99.9%).

• Principle: The ESP uses electrostatic force to charge the particles in the gas stream and then attract them onto collecting surfaces.
• Mechanism:
1. Ionization: Flue gas containing dust enters the ESP. It passes through an electric field created by Discharge Electrodes (wires) carrying a high negative voltage. This causes the gas molecules to ionize, releasing a shower of electrons.
2. Charging: The particulate matter intercepts these free electrons, acquiring a negative charge.
3. Collection: The negatively charged particles are strongly attracted to and migrate toward the positively charged, flat Collecting Electrodes (plates).
4. Removal: The collected dust layer is periodically dislodged from the plates by a mechanical vibration system (rappers) and falls into a hopper located at the bottom for final disposal. 

Short Notes

 1: Acid Rain

Acid rain refers to any form of precipitation (rain, snow, fog, hail, or even dry deposition of acidic particles) that is significantly more acidic than normal, natural rain.

Causes

1. Primary Pollutants: The main precursors are Sulphur Dioxide (SO) and Nitrogen Oxides (NO).
• SO is primarily released from the combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels (especially coal) in thermal power plants and industries.
• NO is released from high-temperature combustion in vehicle engines and industrial furnaces.
2. Chemical Transformation: These gases rise into the atmosphere and react with water vapor, oxygen, and other chemicals to form highly corrosive secondary pollutants: Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) and Nitric Acid (HNO3).

· Formation of Sulfuric Acid:

    SO₂+H₂ O→H₂SO_₃ (Sulfurous acid)

   2SO₂ +O₂+2H₂O   →2H₂SO₄ (Sulfuric acid)    

· Formation of Nitric Acid:

   NO_x +H₂ O→HNO₃ (Nitric acid)

Effects

• Aquatic Ecosystems: Acidification of lakes and streams lowers the pH level, leading to the death of fish and aquatic organisms. It also mobilizes toxic heavy metals (like aluminum) from the soil, which poison aquatic life.
• Vegetation: Damages leave, reduces photosynthetic capacity, and leaches vital nutrients (like Calcium) from the soil, making plants susceptible to disease, drought, and frost.
• Materials/Structures: Accelerates the corrosion of metal structures, and dissolves and degrades limestone and marble buildings (e.g., concern for the Taj Mahal).
• Human Health: The fine particulate sulfates and nitrates that cause acid rain can be inhaled, contributing to respiratory illnesses.

2: Biomagnification (or Bioamplification)

Biomagnification is the process by which the concentration of certain non-biodegradable, often toxic, substances increase progressively at successive levels of a food chain. It is a critical concern related to water and land pollution.

Mechanism

1. Non-Biodegradable Nature: The process involves persistent, fat-soluble toxins, such as heavy metals (e.g., Mercury, Lead, Cadmium) and certain synthetic organic pesticides (e.g., DDT). These substances cannot be metabolized or excreted easily by organisms.
2. Uptake: The pollutant enters the base of the food chain (e.g., aquatic invertebrates or algae) from the surrounding contaminated environment (water or soil).
3. Concentration: When a primary consumer (e.g., a small fish) eats many organisms from the trophic level below it, it accumulates all the toxins from those eaten organisms.
4. Amplification: This accumulation continues and is amplified at each subsequent trophic level (secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, etc.). Apex predators, being at the top, accumulate the highest concentration, potentially thousands of times higher than the initial environmental concentration.

Significance

• Human Health Risk: Humans, often being tertiary or quaternary consumers (especially those consuming fish), are highly susceptible to the effects of biomagnification. High mercury levels in fish, for example, can cause severe neurological damage (Minamata disease).
• Ecological Impact: Toxins can impair the reproduction and survival of top predatory birds (e.g., DDT caused thin eggshells in birds of prey) and mammals, destabilising the ecosystem.

Unit 2: Energy Resources and Global Environmental Issues

 

2.1.1 Energy Resources

 

Global and Indian Energy Demand Scenario

The global energy demand continues to rise, driven by population growth, industrialisation, and increased per capita consumption in developing nations.

●        Global Projections: The overall trend is a shift towards clean electricity and electrification. Renewable energy, particularly wind and solar, is expanding rapidly, driving down costs. However, to meet ambitious climate goals (e.g., limiting warming to 1.5^circC), a massive and sustained push to clean up and expand the power sector and electrify almost all sectors (transport, industry, buildings) is essential.

●        Indian Scenario: India is projected to have the highest energy demand growth globally over the next decade due to its large population and sustained economic expansion.

o    Drivers: Increased demand for cooling (Air Conditioners), rapid infrastructure growth (iron, steel, cement), and vehicle proliferation.

o    Challenge: Despite a fast-growing renewable energy sector (ranking among the top globally for installed capacity in Solar and Wind), coal still dominates electricity generation and is projected to meet a large share of the increasing demand in the near term, contributing significantly to CO2emissions.

o    Progress: Significant growth in total installed power capacity and a sharp rise in renewable energy capacity, leading to a reduction in power shortages.

 

 

Conventional vs. Non-conventional Energy Sources

Energy sources are broadly classified based on their renewability and duration of use.

Feature	Conventional Energy Sources (Non-renewable)	Non-conventional Energy Sources (Renewable)
Examples	Coal, Petroleum (Oil), Natural Gas, Nuclear, Thermal Power	Solar, Wind, Hydro (Large-scale dams are sometimes debated), Geothermal, Biomass, Tidal
Availability	Limited (Exhaustible) - take millions of years to form.	Abundant (Inexhaustible/Renewable) - replenished naturally.
Technology	Well-established and mature infrastructure.	Evolving technology, with falling costs.
Initial Cost	Generally lower for established systems.	Often higher initial capital investment.
Utilization/Exploitation	Commercial, industrial, and transportation sectors (dominant historical sources).	Increasingly used in power generation, both utility-scale and decentralized/domestic.

 

 

Advantages and Limitations

Source Type	Advantages	Limitations
Conventional	High energy density, established infrastructure, reliable/stable power generation, relatively easy storage and transport (fossil fuels).	Non-renewable, high cost volatility (geo-politics), high pollution and GHG emissions, contributes to global warming and acid rain.
Non-conventional	Sustainable (renewable), minimal or zero GHGand air pollutant emissions, reduces reliance on fossil fuels, fosters energy independence/security.	Intermittency (Solar only works in daylight, Wind is variable), lower energy density, need for extensive land/area, high upfront cost, dependency on weather conditions, challenges in large-scale storage.

 

Environmental Problems: Conventional Energy

 

The exploitation of conventional (fossil) fuels leads to severe environmental degradation:

1. Air Pollution: Burning of coal and oil releases significant quantities of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Particulate Matter (PM), and heavy metals (e.g., mercury). This causes smog, respiratory illnesses, and ecosystem damage.
2. Climate Change: The combustion of fossil fuels is the largest source of Greenhouse Gases (GHG), primarily Carbon Dioxide (CO2), leading to the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming.
3. Acid Rain: SO2and Nox react with atmospheric moisture to form sulfuric and nitric acids, which precipitate as acid rain, damaging forests, aquatic life, and infrastructure.
4. Land and Water Degradation: Mining (especially coal) causes habitat destruction, soil erosion, and water pollution (Acid Mine Drainage). Oil spills contaminate marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

 

 

Environmental Implications of Non-conventional Energy Sources

While "cleaner," non-conventional sources are not without environmental impact, primarily localized ones.

Source	Environmental Implications	Mitigation/Solutions
Solar Power	Land Use: Requires significant area for large-scale solar farms. Material Use: Manufacturing panels uses rare earth metals and energy-intensive processes. Waste: End-of-life disposal of panels (e.g., heavy metals like lead/cadmium).	Deployment on degraded land, rooftops/integrated with infrastructure. Develop advanced recycling processes.
Wind Power	Wildlife Impact: Risk of collision for birds and bats, especially at poorly sited locations. Noise Pollution and Visual Impact (Aesthetics).	Careful site selection (avoiding migration routes). New turbine designs and deterrent technologies.
Hydropower	Ecosystem Disruption: Construction of dams alters river flow, disrupts aquatic life (e.g., fish migration), and causes displacement of local populations. Reservoir Emissions: Reservoirs can release GHG(Methane) due to the decomposition of submerged vegetation.	Implementing fish ladders, minimum environmental flow releases, and methane capture technologies.
Biomass	Air Pollution: Burning biomass (wood, crop residue) releases GHGand PM. Land Use/Deforestation: Unsustainable sourcing can lead to deforestation and competition with food crops.	Sourcing from sustainable waste streams (agricultural/municipal). Modern, clean combustion technologies.

 

2.1.2 Global Environmental Issues:

Climate Change, Global Warming, and Green House Effect

These issues transcend national boundaries, requiring international cooperation.

 

The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process essential for life on Earth.

1. Solar radiation (short-wave) enters the Earth's atmosphere.
2. The Earth's surface absorbs this energy and re-emits it as long-wave infrared (IR) radiation.
3. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere (like CO2, CH4, N2O, and water vapor) absorb and re-radiate some of this outgoing IR, trapping heat and warming the lower atmosphere (troposphere).

Global Warming and Climate Change

●        Global Warming is the ongoing, long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature.

●        The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect is the primary cause, resulting from the anthropogenic (human-caused) increase in GHG concentrations, primarily from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes.

●        Climate Change refers to the broader, long-term changes in the statistical distribution of weather patterns, including changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, and the increased frequency of extreme weather events (droughts, floods, heatwaves).

Major Impacts of Climate Change: Rising sea levels (due to thermal expansion and melting ice), ocean acidification (from CO2absorption), biodiversity loss, and disruption to agricultural patterns.

 

Acid Rain

Acid Rain is precipitation (rain, snow, fog, hail, or dust) with a pHlower than that of natural rain (pH approx 5.6).

●        Cause: The primary pollutants are Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) released predominantly from:

o    Burning fossil fuels in power plants (especially coal).

o    Industrial processes.

o    Automobile exhausts.

●        Chemical Reaction: These gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3).

o    SO2 + H2O to H2SO3(Sulphurous acid) to H2SO4(Sulphuric acid)

o    2NO2 + H2O to HNO2 + HNO3(Nitrous and Nitric acid)

●        Impacts:

o    Aquatic Life: Acidification of lakes and streams makes water toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms.

o    Forests and Soil: Damages foliage, weakens trees, and leaches essential nutrients from the soil, hindering growth.

o    Materials: Corrodes buildings, statues, and metal structures (e.g., the Taj Mahal in India).

 

 

Depletion of Ozone Layer

The Ozone Layer (O3) is a region in the stratosphere (10-50 km above Earth's surface) that absorbs most of the Sun's harmful Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation.

●        Cause: Depletion is primarily caused by Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS), notably Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), as well as Halons, Carbon Tetrachloride, and Methyl Chloroform, previously used in refrigerants, aerosols, and fire extinguishers.

●        Chemical Mechanism: In the stratosphere, UV radiation breaks down CFCs, releasing Chlorine (Cl) atoms. A single Cl atom can catalytically destroy tens of thousands of O3molecules:

o    CFCl3 + UV to Cl + CFCl2

o    Cl + O3 to Cl O + O2

o    Cl O + O to Cl + O2 (The Cl atom is free to attack another O3molecule)

●        Ozone Hole: The most severe depletion, referred to as the "ozone hole," occurs seasonally over the Antarctic due to specific cold meteorological conditions.

●        Impacts: Increased UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface leads to:

o    Increased incidence of skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems in humans.

o    Harm to terrestrial and aquatic plant life, affecting crop yields and plankton (base of the marine food web).

●        Global Response: The Montreal Protocol (1987) is an international treaty that successfully phased out the production of ODS, leading to a slow but steady recovery of the ozone layer.

 

 

The Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme is the flagship market-based mechanism under India's National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) and is one of the most innovative and crucial domestic climate policies.

Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme Mechanism

The PAT scheme is a regulatory instrument designed to reduce the Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) in India's energy-intensive industries, using a market-based mechanism for cost-effectiveness.

1. The Core Concept: SEC Reduction Targets

●        Designated Consumers (DCs): The scheme targets large industrial units (e.g., in sectors like Cement, Steel, Thermal Power, Aluminium, Textile, etc.) that cross a specified annual energy consumption threshold. These units are called Designated Consumers (DCs).

●        Specific Energy Consumption (SEC): This is the key metric. It is defined as the energy used per unit of production (e.g., Tonne of Oil Equivalent (TOE) per tonne of cement).

●        Setting Targets: The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) assigns a mandatory SEC reduction target to each DC for a three-year cycle (a "PAT Cycle").

o      Targets are differential: Units that are already highly energy-efficient are given lower percentage reduction targets, while less efficient units are given higher targets. This ensures fairness and pushes all units towards best-in-class performance.

 

2. The Cycle: Perform and Achieve

The scheme operates on multi-year cycles (currently in its seventh cycle, running on a rolling basis):

 

Step	Action	Description
I. Baseline	Performance Measurement	The BEE (via accredited auditors) measures the DC's SEC in a baseline year. This measurement is "normalised" to account for external factors like product mix, fuel quality, or capacity utilization.
II. Target Setting	Achieve Target	The DC is given a legally binding target for SEC reduction to be achieved by the end of the 3-year cycle.
III. Compliance	Implement Measures	The DC implements energy efficiency measures (e.g., upgrading equipment, installing waste heat recovery systems, or optimizing processes) to meet its target.
IV. Verification	End-of-Cycle Audit	At the end of the cycle, an audit verifies the DC's actual SEC achievement.

 

 

 

3. The Market Mechanism: Trade (ES Certs)

The tradable component is what distinguishes PAT from simple command-and-control regulations.

●        Energy Saving Certificates (ES Certs):

o    Issuance: If a DC overachieves its assigned SEC reduction target, they are issued ES Certs by the BEE. One ES Cert is equivalent to one Metric Tonne of Oil Equivalent (MTOE) of energy saved.

o    Obligation: If a DC fails to achieve its assigned target, it must purchase ES Certs from the market to cover its shortfall.

●        Trading:

o    ES Certs are electronic, tradeable commodities bought and sold on dedicated power exchanges (like the Indian Energy Exchange (IEX) and Power Exchange India (PXIL).

●        Incentives and Penalties:

o    Incentive: DCs who invest heavily in efficiency and overachieve their target are rewarded financially by selling their surplus ES Certs.

o    Penalty: DCs who fail to meet the target and do not purchase enough ES Certs to cover the shortfall are liable to pay a penalty under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.

PAT Success = Overachievers are incentivized to perform better + Underachievers face market pressure to comply.

 

PAT vs. CDM (Clean Development Mechanism)

It's important to distinguish PAT from the now-phasing-out Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):

Feature	PAT Scheme	CDM (Kyoto Protocol)
Focus	Energy Efficiency (reduction in SEC) in specific industrial sectors.	GHG Emission Reduction/Avoidance (e.g., by switching fuels or setting up a renewable plant).
Tradable Unit	Energy Saving Certificates (ES Certs) (1 ES Cert approx 1 TOE saved).	Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) (1 CER approx 1 tonne of CO2 avoided).
Boundary	Domestic compliance market within India's obligated energy-intensive industries.	International market facilitating emission reduction projects in developing countries (like India) funded by developed countries.

The PAT scheme is a crucial domestic policy tool that uses the efficiency market to drive tangible energy savings, directly contributing to India's overall goal of reducing the emission intensity of its economy.

 

 

Policy Measures: Global Environmental Issues

International policy efforts have taken distinct paths for climate change and ozone depletion, with varying levels of success.

1. Ozone Depletion: The Montreal Protocol (A Success Story)

The ozone layer issue provided a template for effective, globally binding environmental action.

●        Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985): This was the first framework, primarily establishing cooperation on research and monitoring of the ozone layer. It was non-binding but set the stage for specific controls.

●        The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987):

o    Objective: To phase out the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals referred to as Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS), primarily Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons.

o    Mechanism: It established specific, legally binding timetables for the phase-out of ODS for both developed and developing countries.

o    Key Feature: The establishment of the Multilateral Fund (MLF) to provide financial and technical assistance to developing countries to comply with the Protocol. This principle of common but differentiated responsibilities with supportive finance was crucial.

o    Impact: The protocol is widely considered the most successful environmental treaty in history. It led to a massive reduction in ODS emissions, and the ozone layer is now on a slow but steady path to recovery.

 

 

●        Kigali Amendment (2016): An amendment to the Montreal Protocol that targets the phase-down of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). HFCs are non-ozone-depleting but are potent Greenhouse Gases (GHGs), demonstrating a link and synergy between ozone policy and climate policy.

 

2. Climate Change: Kyoto Protocol vs. Paris Agreement

Addressing climate change has proven more challenging due to its deep entanglement with national energy economies. The key frameworks emerged from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1992), which recognized the problem and established the principles of global cooperation.

The Kyoto Protocol (1997)

The first major international agreement under the UNFCCC.

Feature	Description
Commitments	Legally binding emission reduction targets for 37 developed countries (Annex I Parties).
Principle	Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR): Placed the primary burden on developed nations, arguing they were historically responsible for the bulk of GHG emissions. Developing countries (like India, China) had no binding targets.
Target	Collective reduction of GHG emissions by 5.2% below 1990 levels during the first commitment period (2008–2012).
Mechanisms	Market-based Mechanisms: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI), and Emissions Trading (designed to lower the cost of compliance).
Outcome	Limited Success: Major industrial emitters (e.g., the US) did not ratify it, and many developing countries did not participate in binding reductions. This failure to achieve broad participation led to the search for a new framework.

 

 

The Paris Agreement (2015)

The successor to the Kyoto Protocol, marking a fundamental shift in approach.

Feature	Description
Commitments	Universal Participation: Requires all countries, developed and developing, to submit plans. Targets themselves are not legally binding, but the requirement to set and report on them is.
Approach	Bottom-Up (Nationally Determined Contributions - NDCs): Countries voluntarily determine their own climate targets and mitigation/adaptation actions. This provides greater national flexibility but risks insufficient collective ambition.
Goal	To hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 20C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.50C.
Review Cycle	Ambition Mechanism (Global Stocktake): A mandatory five-year review cycle where countries must update and presumably increase the ambition of their NDCs, aiming to progressively close the global emissions gap.
Climate Finance	Reaffirms the commitment of developed countries to mobilize 100$ billion (₹ 10,000 crore) annually for climate action in developing countries (for mitigation and adaptation).

 

Comparison Summary: Kyoto vs. Paris

Aspect	Kyoto Protocol (1997)	Paris Agreement (2015)
Scope	Targets only developed nations (Annex I).	Universal—all nations set targets.
Target Setting	Top-Down: Targets were centrally negotiated and legally binding.	Bottom-Up: Targets (NDCs) are self-determined and not legally binding.
Flexibility	Less flexible, rigid reduction targets.	Highly flexible, promoting broad participation.
Objective	Reduce emissions by 5.2% below 1990 levels.	Limit temperature rise to well below 20C /1.50C

The shift from the legally binding, but narrowly scoped Kyoto Protocol to the universally inclusive, but non-binding target-setting of the Paris Agreement reflects the political reality of coordinating global action on an issue central to economic development.

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